Surgical Instruments

Surgery has been performed since ancient times. The earliest recorded surgical operations were circumcision and trepanation. (Circumcision is the removal of the foreskin of the penis. Trepanation involves making a hole in the skull to relieve pressure and/or release spirits. ) The earliest instruments used in these procedures were flint or obsidian (shiny stone) knives and saws. Stone Age skulls from around the world have been found with holes in them from trepanning. Primitive people also used knives to cut off fingers damaged in accidents. The ancient Hindus of India excelled at surgery. The great surgical textbook, Sushruta Samhita, probably dates back to the last centuries B. C. This work described 20 sharp and 101 blunt surgical instruments. These instruments included forceps, pincers, trocars (sharp-pointed instruments fitted with a small tube), and cauteries (irons to heat and sear tissue). Most of these surgical tools were made of steel. The ancient Hindus also used lancets to carry out cataract surgery, scalpels to restore amputated noses via plastic surgery, and sharp knives to remove bladder stones. At about the same time, ancient Peruvians were performing trepanation. They left behind various surgical instruments, including scalpels and chisels made of obsidian. The Greeks practiced surgery mostly on external parts of the body. They usually used forceps, knives, and probes. Bronze Roman surgical instruments found at Pompeii include a scalpel with a steel blade, spring and scissor forceps, a sharp hook, and shears. In the first century A. D. , Cel-cus A tray of modern surgical instruments. The ancient Hindus used lancets to carry out cataract surgery, scalpels to restore amputated noses via plastic surgery, and sharp knives to remove bladder stones. described the use of ligatures. Ligatures are used to tie off blood vessels and reduce bleeding during operations. Galen ( A. D. 130-200) gave detailed and sensible instructions on the use of surgical instruments. After ancient times, medical knowledge declined, and surgeons fell to a lowly status. In the absence of knowledge about antiseptics, surgery was highly risky. As a result, only the simplest and most urgent operations (such as amputations) using the most straightforward instruments were performed. A few physicians sought to spread knowledge of surgical procedures by publishing texts that illustrated surgical instruments. Most important among these men was the great French surgeon Ambroise Pare (1517-1590). Pare revived use of ligature and invented many surgical procedures and instruments. His inventions included the â€Å"crow's beak† to hold blood vessels while tying them off. Pare also perfected an instrument for cataract removal. Other types of surgical instruments are: Payr’s Crushing Clamp: This is the heavy instrument with double lever system, it has two blades with uniform serrations, used to perform Gastrectomy. Aneurysm Needle: This is the long instrument with an EYE at one end, it was used to ligate the feeding artery in an aneurysm, during venesection, silk suture can be threaded within eye passed around to ligate it. Right Angled Forcep: Also known as Lahey’s Forcep, it is used to ligate major vascular pedicles like superior thyroid pedicle in thyroidectomy, cystic artery in cholecystectomy and lumbar veins in lumbar sympathectomy. Czerny Retractor: This is a double hooked retractor on one side and single blade on other side, this is a superficial retractor, used to retract layers of abdominal walls and muscles during appendicectomy, herniorrhapy, or thyroidectomy. Lagenback retractor: It has a single blade, function it’s similar to Czerny Retractor. Deaver’s Retractor: It is used to retract liver during vagotomy, cholecystectomy, Gastrectomy, also used to retract kidney and urinary bladder. Allis Tissue holding forcep: It has a ratched and triangular expansion at tip, where serrations are present, it is used to hold tough structures like fascia, aponeurosis, can also be used to hold duodenum during Gastrectomy. Throughout time surgical instruments have changed now we sterilize the instruments and they are much more safer than the once in ancient history. Technology has evolved and keeps evolving new instruments will be created always.

Beer Game

The Beer Game Copyright by Professor John Sterman, MIT October 1984 Sources:http://www. sol-ne. org/pra/tool/beer. html The Fifth Discipline: Pg 27-54 Why play the ‘Beer Game’? Instructions for running the game Steps of the Game Outline for post-game discussion and tasks Supplies Checklist & Mock-up of the Game Board Bibliography CHARTS AND TABLES TO PRINT OUT: [only issue Table 1 and 2 at the onset of the game. Chart 1-3 to be distributed at the end of the game and before post-game discussion. ] Table 1:Record Sheet: Cost of Inventory and Backlog Table 2:Computation of cumulative inventory backlogGraph 1:Inventory and Backlog Graph 2:Orders Graph 3:Perceived order by Customers Slide 1:Facilitator Slides Slide 2:Facilitator Slides Slide 3:Facilitator Slides Slide 4:Facilitator Slides Slide 5:Facilitator Slides Slide 6:Facilitator Slides Slide 7:Facilitator Slides Slide 8:Facilitator Slides Contact Point for loan of Beer Game Set: If you or your unit is interested in play ing this game and need assistance, please contact any of the 1Y LO participants, including the webmaster: Ms Sheila Damodaran at [email  protected] gov. sg. The game sets are kept at TRACOM's Resource Centre (SIRC, TRACOM).Contact: 3594241. Why play the Beer Game? The Fifth Discipline, pg 27 [Prisoners of the System, or Prisoners of our Thinking] This game was developed by Professor John Sterman of MIT to introduce people to fundamental concepts of systems dynamics. Participants experience the pressure of playing a role in a complex system, and come to understand first hand a key principle of systems thinking that structure produces behavior. The Beer Game is a simulation exercise – like a laboratory experiment, where one is able to see: ? The consequences of your decisions play out more clearly in real organisations; In effect it presents a microcosm of how a real organization functions. ? Shift in prevailing assumption of what is required of us for creating fundamentally different organisations; from a perspective of â€Å"the system we are trying to change is out there and we (as change agents) are trying to fix it† to â€Å"we and the system are inextricably linked together†. It was first developed in the 1960s at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology’s Sloan School of Management. Because it is a â€Å"laboratory replica† of a real setting (rather than reality itself), we can: Isolate the disabilities, and; ? Their causes more sharply than is possible in real organisations. Often this reveals that the problems originate in basic ways of thinking and interacting, more than in peculiarities of organisations and policy. Instructions for Running The Beer Distribution Game John Sterman October 1984 This document outlines the protocol for the beer distribution game developed to introduce people to concepts of system dynamics. The game can be played by as few as four and as many as 60 people (assistance is required for lar ger groups).The only prerequisite, besides basic math skills, is that none of the participants have played the game before, or else agree not to reveal the â€Å"trick† of the game. 1. State purpose of Game: a) Introduce people to the key principle â€Å"structure produces behavior† b) Experience the pressures of playing a role in a complex system 2. Provide overview of production-distribution system: a) The game is played on a board, which portrays the production and distribution of beer (show board game). [pic] b) Orders for and cases of beer are represented by chips, which are manipulated by the players.The players at each position are completely free to make any decision that seems prudent. Their only goal is to manage their positions as best as they can to maximise profits. c) Each brewery consists of four sectors: retailer, wholesaler, distributor and factory. One person manages each sector. d) A deck of cards represents customer demand. Each week, customers dema nd beer from the retailer, who ships the beer requested out of inventory. The retailer in turn orders beer from the wholesaler, who ships the beer requested out of the wholesaler's inventory.Likewise, the wholesaler orders and receives beer from the distributor, who in turn orders and receives beer from the factory. The factory produces the beer. At each stage there are shipping delays and order receiving delays. These represent the time required to receive, process, ship and deliver orders, and as well be seen play a crucial role in the dynamics. e) If your participants are not familiar with the concept of manufacturing, shipping, and distribution, consider presenting these concepts initially before proceeding. Call the participants together at one board and demonstrate each step of the way carefully.Often it is the lack of this information that causes the initial confusion of the game. You could say something like: â€Å"The Beer Game immerses us in a type of organization that is widely prevalent in all industrial countries: a system for producing and distributing a single brand of beer. There are four main characters in the story – a retailer, a wholesaler, a distributor and the Marketing Director of a brewery †¦ f) The players at each position are completely free to make any decision that seems prudent. All they have to do is meet customer demand and order enough from your own supplier while avoiding costly backlogs.They should manage their positions as best as they can to maximise profits. 3. State Basic rules: a) Have each team pick a name for their brewery (e. g. the name of a real beer). Have them label their record sheets with the name of their brewery and their position, e. g. retailer, wholesaler, etc. b) Have each person ante up $1. 00, or an appropriate amount, which will go to the winning team, winner take all (optional). c) The object of the game is to minimize total costs for your team. The team with the lowest total costs wins. Co sts are computed in the following way: ? The carrying costs of inventory are $. 0 per case per week ? Out-of-stock costs, or backlog costs, are $1. 00 per case per week ? The costs of each stage (retailer, wholesaler, distributor, factory) for each week, added up for the total length of the game, determine the total cost. d) No communication between sectors. Retailers should not talk to anyone else, same for wholesalers, distributors, and factories. The reason for this is that in real life there may be five factories, several dozen distributors, thousands of wholesalers, and tens of thousands of retailers, and each one cannot find out what the total activity of all the others is.The only communication between sectors should be through the passing of orders and the receiving of beer. e) Retailers are the only ones who know what the customers actually order. They should not reveal this information to anyone else. f) All incoming orders must be filled. If your inventory is insufficient to fill incoming orders plus backlog, fill as many orders as you can and add the remaining orders to your backlog. 4. Steps of the Game. a) Issue only Table 1 and Table 2 to all the participants. b) The game Facilitator should call out the steps as the game progresses. ) The first few times when the system is still in equilibrium the facilitator should go through the steps very slowly to make sure people have the mechanics down. d) Notice that of the six steps of the game, only the fifth, placing orders, involves a decision. e) The remaining five steps only involve moving inventory of beer or order slips or recording your position, and are purely mechanical. For the first few weeks the facilitator should tell everyone to order four units to keep the system in equilibrium. 5. Initialization of the boards: ) There should be twelve pennies or chips representing twelve cases of beer in each inventory. Each chip or penny represents one case. There should be four pennies in each shipping box and production delay. b) There should be order slips with â€Å"4† written on them, face down in each incoming and outgoing order box (orders and production requests). A supply of blank order slips should be available at each sector, as well as a supply of pennies or chips. c) The deck of cards with the customer demand should not be revealed in advance.The pattern of customer demand that is most effective for first-time players is a pattern of (†¦. To be revealed after the game/debrief by the Game Leader). d) Each order deck should have fifty weeks' worth of cards, and the players should be told that the game will be fifty weeks long. Typically it's only necessary to run the game thirty-five weeks or so in order to see the pattern of fluctuation, but telling the players it will be fifty weeks prevents horizon effects, where they run their inventories down because they feel the end of the game is coming. 6. Tips for Facilitators: ) It's very helpful if the game facil itator makes sure that each team stays in step so that you can quickly glance around the room and see that everyone is at the right place. Remind the participants to follow the steps in order to keep pace of the game. b) The game facilitator should write the current week on the blackboard as the steps for that week are called out. c) In about the eighth or ninth week the retailer will run out of inventory and have a backlog for the first time. People do not understand the meaning of backlogs, or the cumulative nature of the backlog.It is necessary to stop the game at this point, ask everyone to pay attention, and explain how backlog accounting works. Explain that: The backlog represents orders you've received, but have not yet filled, and which you must fill in the future, and d) The backlog is cumulative. â€Å"Next week you have to fulfill the incoming orders that you receive, plus whatever is in your backlog, if possible. If it not possible to fulfill the incoming orders, then t he amount left over is added to the existing backlog and must be filled in later weeks. † (see Table 2). ) Emphasize at this point that backlog costs twice as much as inventory. You may need to do this one or two more times, and should be careful to check and be sure that they do in fact fill their backlog. It is helpful to write the following equation on the blackboard to help with backlog accounting (see below). Orders to fill = New orders + Backlog this week + last week + †¦ f) The game can be played in as little as one and a half hours if the facilitator maintains a very brisk pace. The debriefing usually requires at least 40 minutes and can be expanded substantially. g) Consider having 2 persons to play each role.One person is responsible for taking the decision and advancing the chips and order slips and the other person to maintain the figures and filling up Tables 1 and 2. The pair may switch their roles mid-way during the game. 7. End of game a) Halt the game aft er about 36 weeks (but play the game, up to that point as if it is going on to 50 weeks, to avoid unusual end-of-game moves). b) Ask each position on each team to calculate their total cost: c) Cost = Total inventory x $0. 50 + Total Backlog x $1 and to mark the total cost on the Record Sheet for the position d) Pass out Orders graph sheets – one to each position.Ask each position to graph their own orders, week by week. Clarify to Factory that they will graph their Production Requests. e) Pass out Effective Inventory graph sheets – one to each position. Ask each position to graph the inventory week by week, showing any backlog as negative inventory. f) Team name and position must be indicated on all sheets. Once the graph is complete, have the players connect the dots with a bold magic marker (colour coded – Retailer = black, Wholesaler = blue, Distributor = green and Factory = red – to the board) for ease of viewing by the group. ) Pass out the Customer Order graph sheets to everyone except Retailers. Ask each person to sketch what he or she thinks the customer order rate looked like over time. Ask each to indicate a simple scale or maximum value. ? Ask retailers not to discuss anything about customer orders until after the debrief of the game. h) Collect all the sheets, and send players off for a break. i) During break: ? Calculate team costs to determine the winner and compute the average team cost. ? Tape sheets together (as shown below) and hang up team graphs.Effective Inventory Team 1Team 2Team 3 |Retailer | |Retailer | |Retailer | | |Wholesaler | |Wholesaler | |Wholesaler | | |Distributor | |Distributor | |Distributor | | |Factory | |Factory | |Factory | |Orders/Production Requests Team 1Team 2Team 3 |Retailer | |Retailer | |Retailer | | |Wholesaler | |Wholesaler | |Wholesaler | | |Distributor | |Distributor | |Distributor | | |Factory | |Factory | |Factory | |STEPS OF THE GAME (Adapted) |Step # |General instructions |Speci fic Instruction to players playing the roles| | | |of Factory/ Retailer | | |Receive inventory (move chips from shipping delay 2 into current |Factory advance from production delay 1 to | | |inventory) and advance the shipping (from shipping delay 1 to |production delay 2. | |shipping delay 2). | | | |Use both hands to slide the chips over from respective boxes. | | | |Caution players not to move all chips into one box]. | | | |Look at incoming orders (check the order slip placed in your |Retailer draws consumer card. Follow | | |inbox) |instructions as in adjacent set. ] | | |Fulfill orders from your stock (your current inventory only). | | | |Move chips out into shipping delay 1 of the player downstream. | | | |All incoming orders must be filled. Facilitator to re-mention | | | |this step when the team has entered week 6/8) If your inventory | | | |is insufficient to fill incoming orders plus backlog, fill as | | | |many orders as you can and add the remaining orders to your | | | |backlog (use Table 2 to work out your cumulative backlog). | | |Record your balance inventory and/or cumulative backlog (in the | | | |latter case your balance inventory would have been reduced to | | | |zero) on Table 1. | | | |Advance the rder slips that you placed in the previous week from|Factory introduces production requests from | | |your outbox into the inbox of the player upstream. |previous week into production delay 1. | | |Take decision on the orders you wish to place for the upcoming | | | |week. Place your order slips in your outbox. | | | |Record your orders on Table 1. | FOLLOW-UP TASKS AND OUTLINE FOR POST-GAME DISCUSSION (Adapted) |Step # |Tasks and outline |Group Task | | |Remind participants of the objective |Emphasize that although they played the game to minimize cost, that's | | |of the game. |not the real purpose of the game. | | | | | | |The game is designed to: | | | |give players an experience of playing a role in a system | | | |show them how â€Å"st ructure produces behavior† | | |Request players tabulate total current|None. | |inventory, cumulative inventory on | | | |Table 1. | | | |Accounting: |None. | | |Record penalty of $0. 50 per item in | | | |inventory (at each stage). | | | |Record penalty of $1. 0 per item | | | |ordered but not filled. | | | |Plot inventory versus time (Chart 1) |Place charts at front of classroom for everyone to see (see typical | | |and unfilled orders (on Chart 1 also) |chart below). | | |versus time for your stage and for | | | |your company overall. | | | | | | |Plot order versus time (Chart 2) for |Place charts at front of classroom for everyone to see (see typical | | |your stage and for your company |chart below). | | |overall. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Ask participants: |Each of the players had the best possible intentions: to serve his | | |What’s going through the minds of the |customers well, to keep the product moving smoothly through the system, | | |p layers? |and to avoid penalties. Each participant made well-motivated, clearly | | |What problems arose during the game |defensible judgments based on reasonable guesses about what might | | |playing? |happen.Still there was a crisis- built into the structure of the | | | |system. | | | | | | | |Most people try to explain reality by showing how one set of events | | | |cause another or, if they've studied a problem in more depth, by showing| | | |how a particular set of events are part of a longer term historical | | | |process. | | | | | | |Have the participants illustrate this for themselves by looking at their| | | |own â€Å"explanations† for events during the game. | | | | | | | |Take a particular incident in the game, for example a large surge in | | | |production requests at the factory, and ask the person responsible why | | | |they did that. | | | | | | |Their answer will invariably relate their decision to some prior | | | |decision of the person they supply or who supplies them. Then turn to | | | |that person and ask them why they did that. Continue this until people | | | |see that one can continue to relate one event to earlier events | | | |indefinitely. | | | | | | |Wholesaler/Distributor may say: â€Å"I am ordering four/fives times my usual| | | |order. Maybe the retailer is ordering so much because they can’t get | | | |any of the beer from me. Either way I have to keep up. I am dismayed | | | |the brewery had just stepped up production. How could they be slow? | | | |What if I can’t get any of the beer and they go to one my competitors? | | |The backlog costs due. I am afraid to tell the accountant what to | | | |expect. † | | | | | | | |Retailer may say: â€Å"I ordered more just to be safe and to keep up with | | | |the sales. I don’t want to get a reputation for being out of stock of | | | |popular beers.By the time I call my backlogged customers, I am sold | | | |out before I can sell a single new cas e. What is that wholesaler doing | | | |to me? Doesn’t he know what a ravenous market we have down here? I | | | |think of all the lost potato chip sales† | | | | | | | |Brewery may say: â€Å"Even after Week 14 I had not caught up with the | | | |backlogs.At Week 16 I have finally caught up but the distributors had | | | |not asked for any more beer at all? Why did the order mushroom and then| | | |die? † | | | | | | | |â€Å"The orders have finally arrived but what’s wrong with the retailers? | | | |Why have they stopped ordering? † | | | | | |Briefly describe what strategy you |After a few minutes (about 10) of discussion, look at the graphs of the | | |developed during the game for making |results. Ask them, â€Å"What commonalities do you see in the graphs for the| | |ordering decisions. |different teams? † | | | | | | | |Participants should see common pattern of overshoot and oscillation. | | | |This should be most evident in the effect ive inventory graph. | | | | | | |Get them to really see for themselves that different people in the same | | | |structure produce qualitatively similar results. Even though they acted | | | |very differently as individuals in ordering inventory result (there was | | | |free will), still the overall patterns (qualitative pattern) of behavior| | | |are similar. | | | | | | |This is a very important point–take as long as necessary to have them | | | |see it for themselves. | | | | | | | |Obviously at the factory, the Marketing Director will be blamed for any | | | |layoffs or plant closings that come out of this crisis – just as the | | | |wholesaler blamed the retailer and the retailer blamed the wholesaler | | | |and oth wanted to blame the factory. | | | | | | | |You might reflect at this point on what happens in the real world when | | | |such performance target oscillations are generated. The typical | | | |organizational response is to find the â€Å"person respon sible† (the guy | | | |placing the orders or the inventory manager) and blame him. | | | | | | |The game clearly demonstrates how inappropriate this response | | | |is–different people following different decision rules for ordering a | | | |generated oscillation. | | |Plot what you think was the customer |After having had them all see the extent to which different people | | |order over time (Chart 3) during the |produce similar results in a common structure, you then need to move on | | |game. |to what is usually the most powerful point made by the game: that | | | |internal structure not external events cause system behavior. | | | | | | |The way to make this point is to ask the following question: | | | | | | | |†All of you who were not retailers, or who otherwise have not found out | | | |what the pattern of customer orders was, what do you think the customers| | | |were doing? † | | | | | | | |Most people usually believe that customer demand was fluctu ating because| | | |they believe that the system fluctuations must have been externally | | | |driven. Most draw a curve which rises and falls, just as their orders | | | |rose and fell. | | | | | | |Get each of them (other than retailers) to see that they assumed | | | |fluctuating customer orders. | | |Retailer in your team to plot actual |Draw in each order rate graph the actual customer ordering pattern. The| | |customer order on the same chart. |small step from 4 to 8 orders should make a strong visual impression in | | | |contrast to the order rate fluctuations which often have amplitude of | | | |20- to 40-orders per week.Moreover, the sustained oscillations | | | |generated by the system contrast sharply to the absolutely flat customer| | | |order rate after the step at week 5. | | | | | | | |The Retailer may respond with: â€Å"The demand never mushroomed. And it | | | |never died out. We still sell eight cases of beer – week after week. | | | |But you didn’t send us the beer we wanted. So we had to keep ordering, | | | |just to make sure we had enough to keep up with our customers†. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |This simple exercise of getting them to see how, contrary to their | | | |expectations, the internal system structure is completely capable of | | | |generating fluctuating behavior is the most profound lesson they can | | |Are the oscillations due to external |learn from the game. | | |or internal reasons? | | | |It is important that they see this for themselves, as a demonstration or| | | |an experimental result, which they did, not as an idea of which you're | | | |trying to convince them. In fact, the game is an experiment in very true| | | |sense. The result of oscillating behavior was not predetermined. | | | | | | | |The assumption that the system's problems are caused by the customer | | | |stems from our deeply felt need to find someone or something to blame | | | |where there are problems. | | | | | | |Initially after the game is over, many believe that the culprits are the| | | |players in the other positions. This belief is shattered by seeing that| | | |the same problems arise in all plays of the game, regardless of who is | | | |manning the different positio ns. Many then direct their search for a | | | |scapegoat toward the consumer. | | | | | | |But when their guesses are compared with the flat customer orders, this | | | |theory is shot down too. This has a devastating effect on some players. | | |In the last 20 years, the beer game |If literally thousands of players all generate the same qualitative | | |has been played thousands of times in |behaviour pattern the causes of the behaviour must lie beyond the | | |classes and management training |individuals. The causes of the behaviour must lie in the structure of | | |seminars. It has been played on five |the game itself. | |continents, among people of all ages, | | | |nationalities, cultural origins and |When placed in the same sy stem, people however different, tend to | | |vastly varied business backgrounds. |produce similar results. | | |Some had never heard of a production/ | | | |distribution system before; others had|In system dynamics we take an alternative viewpoint—that the internal | | |spent a good portion of their lives |structure of a system is more important than external events in | | |working in such businesses. |generating qualitative patterns of behavior. | | | |A system causes its own behaviour. In the game.The structure that | | |Yet every time the game is played the |caused wild swings involved the multi-stage supply chain and the delays | | |same crises ensue. First there is |intervening between different stages (refer Tools on ST), the limited | | |growing demand that can’t be met. |information available (refer Tools on TL) at each stage in the system, | | |Orders build throughout the system. |and the goals, costs, perceptions and fears (refer Tools on MM) that | | |Invent ories are depleted. Backlogs |influenced individuals’ orders for beer. | | |grow. Then the beers arrive enmasse | | | |while incoming orders decline. |These an be illustrated by this diagram: | | | | | | |By the end of the experiment, almost | | | |all players are sitting with large |Events | | |inventories they cannot unload –e. g. |(e. g. inventory backlogs and surges) | | |it is not unusual to find brewery and | | | |distribution inventory levels in the | | | |hundreds over hanging orders from | | | |wholesalers for 8-12 cases per week. Patterns | | | |(Panic behaviours / oscillations) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Structure | | | |(only form of communication is through order slips, the use performance | | | |measures by inventory and order sizes and the effect of delays – from | | | |upstream) | | | | | | | |But also remember the nature of structure in a human system is subtle | | | |because we are a part of it and this means we often have the power to | | | |alter structures, which we are operating. | | | | | | | |How can such controlling structures be recognised? | | | | | | | |Characteristic pattern of order buildup and decline at each position, | | | |amplified in intensity as you move upstream from retailers to breweries. | | | | | | |Each position goes through an inventory-backlog cycle: first there is | | | |insufficient inventory and then there is too much. | | | | | | | |Assumptions of an external cause (e. g. the other players or the | | |Think of examples in your |customer) are characteristics of non-systemic thinking. | |organisations where you can apply | | | |these principles. When we feel: |How would such knowledge help us to be more successful in a complex | | |Too much work? |system – redefining your scope of influence? | | |Not enough information? | | | |Too many changes? |Each player adopts the simplest ordering policy possible – simply place | | |Not able to manage changes? |new orders equal to ord ers he received. When this strategy is followed | | |Someone is unfair to you? unswervingly by all the players, all positions settle into stability by | | |Customers are demanding? |Week 11. The strategy may generate persistent backlogs (may not be | | | |practical in real life as it invites competitors to enter the market) | | | |but it eliminates the buildup and collapse in ordering and the | | | |associated wild-swings in inventories. In 75% of teams that play the | | | |game, the â€Å"no strategy† position have a lower total cost. | | |Most players see their job as â€Å"managing their position† in isolation | | | |from the rest of the system. What is required is to see how their | | | |position interacts with the larger system – your influence is broader | | | |than simply of your own position. | | | |You pay close attention to own inventory, costs, backlog, orders, etc. | | | |(events).You respond to new orders by shipping out beer. What this | | | |view misses, is the ways that your order influences your supplier’s | | | |behaviour. Which in turn might influence yet another supplier’s | | | |behaviour. For example, if they place a large number of orders, they | | | |can wipe out their supplier’s inventory, thereby causing their | | | |supplier’s delivery delay to increase.If they then respond by placing | | | |still more orders, they create a â€Å"vicious cycle† that increases problems| | | |throughout the system (see below). Players that share the systems | | | |viewpoint tends to win – in order for you to succeed others must succeed| | | |as well. | | | | | | | |Causal Diagram of effect of systemic structure downstream & delays | | | |upstream | | | | | | | | | | |(see overleaf) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |What do you believe to be the causes |This is a good point to introduce learning disabilities and our ways of | | |of these problems? thinking in an organization: | | | | | | | |Fixation on events – Each player focuses on events giving very little | | | |power to alter the course of events at a structural or strategic levels. | | | |I am my position – because they â€Å"became their positions†, people do not | | | |see how their own actions affect the other positions. | | |The enemy is out there – The game reveals the problems originate in | | | |basic ways of our thinking and interacting, more than in peculiarities | | | |of organisations and policy. Often when problems arise, people quickly | | | |blame each other – â€Å"the enemy† becomes the players at the other | | | |positions, or even the organization structure and polices and/or | | | |customers. | | |The illusion of taking charge – when they get â€Å"proactive† and place more| | | |orders, they make matters worse. | | | |The pa rable of the boiled frog – because their overordering builds up | | | |gradually, they don’t realise the direness of their situation until its | | | |too late. | | | |Delusion of learning from experience – by and large they don’t learn | | | |from their experiences because the most important consequences of their | | |actions occur elsewhere in the system, eventually coming back to create | | | |the very problems they blame on others. | | | |The Myth of the Management Team – the teams running the different | | | |positions become consumed with blaming the other players for their | | | |problems, precluding any opportunity to learn from each others’ | | | |experience. | | |What could we do to potentially change|Analysis using Levels of Perspective tool: | | |the behaviour observed in the game? Espoused Vision: Everybody working as a team | | | |Vision-in-Use: I am my position | | |Check-up the Vision-Deployment Matrix. |Systemic Structure-in -use: No communications, minimising losses for | | | |one’s position and overanticipating the orders | | | |Patterns-in-use: Are not able to meet orders in time and having to deal | | | |with delayed productions and over-doers in the long-run. | | | |Events: Is constantly reacting leading to frustrations and burnouts in | | | |the long-run. | | |Desired Systemic Structure: First, wait patiently for the beer that you | | | |have ordered but because of the delay, it has not yet arrived. Second, | | | |don’t panic. It takes discipline to contain the overwhelming urge to | | | |order more when backlogs are building and your customers are screaming. | | | |Without the discipline, you and everyone will suffer. Third, assume a | | | |†No strategy† approach can actually work. | | |Shift in prevailing assumption of what is required of us for creating | | | |fundamentally different organisations; from: | | | |Firstly, a perspective of â€Å"the system we are trying to change is out | | | |there and we (as change agents) are trying to fix it† to â€Å"we and the | | | |system are inextricably linked together†. | | | |Secondly, a perspective of serving the team rather than the â€Å"individual†| | | |is who counts here; watch out for Number One! | SUPPLIES CHECKLIST PER TEAM: |3 TEAMS |4 TEAMS |5 TEAMS |6 TEAMS | |Game Board |3 |4 |5 |6 | |Single Chips |600 |840 |960 |1200 | |Ten Chips |90 |120 |150 |150 | |Customer Deck (1) |3 |4 |5 |6 | |Order Slips (200) |600 |800 |1000 |1200 | |Graphs (4) |12 |16 |20 |25 | |Record Sheets (4) |12 |16 |20 |25 | |Pencils (4) |12 |16 |20 |25 | |Calculators (4) |12 |16 |20 |24 | |PER SESSION: |Masking Tape | |Four-color markers per team | |Magic Markers | |Debriefing Book | |Flip Charts | |Either white board to hold charts for each organization or space on a blank wall | |Previous game graphs | |Table set ups | [B]- Items are not available with the game set. Please provide required sets. [I] - Items are not available with the game set. Please make required number of copies. MOCK GAME BOARD [pic] Table 1: Cost of Inventory and Backlog Team Name: _______________________ Circle your position:WholesalerRetailerDistributorFactory Wk | | |INV 1 = | |This week's order from customer: _____ |This week's order from customer: _____ | |last week's backlog: + _____ |last week's backlog: + _____ | |total orders to ship: = _____ |total orders to ship: = _____ |this week's shipments: – _____ |this week's shipments: – _____ | |this week's backlog: = _____ |this week's backlog: = _____ | |This week's order from customer: _____ |This week's order from customer: _____ | |last week's backlog: + _____ |last week's backlog: + _____ | |total orders to ship: = _____ |total orders to ship: = _____ | |this week's shipments: – _____ |this week's shipments: – _____ | |this week's backlog: = _____ |this week's backlog: = _____ | |This week's order from customer: _____ |This week's order from customer: _____ | |last week's backlog: + _____ |last week's backlog: + _____ | |total orders to ship: = _____ |total orders to ship: = _____ | |this week's shipments: – _____ |this week's shipments: – _____ | |this week's backlog: = _____ |this week's backlog: = _____ | |This week's order from customer: _____ |This week's order from customer: _____ | |last week's backlog: + _____ |last week's backlog: + _____ | |total orders to ship: = _____ |total orders to ship: = _____ | |this week's shipments: – _____ |this week's shipments: – _____ | |this week's backlog: = _____ |this week's backlog: = _____ | Graph 1: My Inventory (including Backlog) Team Name: _______________________ [pic] Graph 2: My Orders Team Name: _______________________ [pic] Graph 3: My perception of orders by customer Team Name: _______________________ [pic] The Beer Distribution Game An Annotated Bibliography Covering its History and Use in Education and Research Prepared by John D. Sterman Sloan School of Management Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge, MA 02139 (617) 253-1951 (voice); (617) 253-6466 (fax); [email  protected] edu (email) April 1992; revised July 1992 The Beer Distribution Game dates to the earliest days of system dynamics.The game has been used for three decades as an introduction to systems thinking, dynamics, cumputer simulation, and management. It has been played by thousands of people, all over the world, from high-school students to CEOs of major corporations. The references below provide useful information for those who want to follow up the experience of the game. These works describe the history of the game, the equations for simulating the game on a computer, the success of organizational change efforts based on the original model embodied in the game, the psychological processes people use when playing, and even how these processes can produce chaos. * ? Forrester, J. W. (1958) Industria l Dynamics: A Major Breakthrough for Decision Makers.Harvard Business Review, 36(4), July/August, 37-66. The first asrticle in the field of system dynamics. Presents the production-distribution system as an example of dymanic analysis of a business problem. Reprinted in Roberts (1978). ? Forrester, J. W. (1961) Industrial Dynamics. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Contains a description of an early version of the Beer Distribution Game ? MacNeil-Lehrer Report, (1989) Risky Business – Business Cycles, Video, Public Broadcasting System, aired 23 October 1989. Videotape showing students in John Sterman's Systems Dymanics course at MIT playing and discussing the Beer Game. Relates the game to boom and bust cycles in the real world.Excellent in debriefing the game, and helpful to those seeking to learn how to run the game. Copies available from System Dynamics Group, E60-383, MIT, Cambridge MA 02139. ? Mosekilde, E. , E. R. Larsen & J. D. Sterman (1991). Coping with complexity: Determini stic Choas in human decision making bahavior. In J. L. Casti & A. Karlqvist (Eds. ), Beyond Belief: Randomness, Prediction, and Explanation in Science, 199-229. Boston:CRC Press Shows how simple and reasonable decision rules for playing the Beer Game may produce strange nonlinear phenomena, including deterministic chaos. ? Radzicki, M. (1991). Computer-based beer game boards. Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Dept. f Soc Sci and Policy Studies, Worcester, Ma 01609-2280 Beer game boards in PICT format for Macintosh computers available on disk for $5. 00; all proceeds go to the System Dynamics Society. ? Thomsen, J. S. , E. Mosekilde, & J. D. Sterman (1992). Hyperchaotic Phenomena in Dynamic Decision Making. Systems Analysis and Modelling Simulation, forthcoming. Extends earlier papers by Moskilde, Sterman, et al. to examine hyperchaotic modes in which the behavior of the beer distribution system may switch chaotically among several different chaotic attractors (for afficionados, †Å"hyperchaos† exists when a dynamical system contains multiple positive Lyapunov exponents). ? Roberts, E. B. , ed. (1978) Managerial Applications of System Dynamics.Cambridge, MA: Productivity Press. Excellent anthology of early-applied system dynamics work in organizations, including analysis of efforts to implement the results of the model which led to the Beer Game. ? Senge, P. (1990) The Fifth Discipline. New York: Doubleday. Excellent non-technical discussion of the Beer Game, and systems thinking principles generally. ? Sterman, J. D. (1984). Instructions for Running the Beer Distribution Game. D-3679, System Dynamics Group, MIT, E60-383, Cambridge, MA 02139. Explains how to run and debrief the Beer Game, including layout of boards, set up, play, and discussion. Incorporates debriefing notes by Peter Senge.Some people have found this document, in conjunction with the MacNeil/Lehrer video and plenty of practice, is sufficient to enable them to lead the game successfully. ? Sterman, J. D. (1988). Modeling Managerial Behavior: Misperceptions of Feedback in a Dynamic Decision Making Experiemnt. Management Science, 35(3), 321-339. Detailed analysis of Beer Game results. Examines why people do so poorly in the Beer Game. Proposes and tests a model of the decision making processes people use when playing the game and shows why they do so badly. Additional information on systems dynamics, including publications, simulation games, management flight simulators, journals, etc. is available from John Sterman at the address above. *If you know of additional publications which discuss aspects of the game not ncluded in this bibliography please send a copy to John Sterman at the address above so they can be incorporated in future releases of this bibliography. ———————– [1] Order fulfilled Cost Storage] Total Inventory Balance(w=t) = Inventory Balance(w=t-1) + New Inventory Received(w=t) [2] Balance Inventor y After fulfilling Order(w=t) = Total Inventory Balance (w=t) – Order Fulfilled (w=t) [3] Cumm Backlog (w=t) = New Backlog (w=t) + Unfulfilled Cumm Backlog(w=t-1) ———————– Reta

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Civil Liberties, Habeas Corpus, and the War on Terror Essay Example for Free

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The War on Terror would impact lives deeply from this point on and the civil liberties of every American citizen and noncitizen would change the history of what we were founded on. Former President George W. Bush and his administration set out to capture those thought to be responsible for the terrorist attacks on American soil. In addition Former President Bush and his administration went to great lengths to go beyond the reach of the judicial system which enforces the writ of Habeas Corpus. These actions have been highly debated across the nation. Habeas Corpus original meaning can be best defined as a demand by the courts to which a government agency produces a prisoner and demonstrates that they have the proper grounds in which to hold them. â€Å"It is the process by which Common Law countries ensure the second freedom mentioned in the U. S. Declaration of Independence Liberty and the right not to be imprisoned arbitrarily in its most fundamental form† (MacMillan, K, 2010). 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And is the â€Å"Land of the Free and the Home of the Brave† such a great nation, that is so powerful that the laws that were put in place to protect civil freedoms and liberties, do not apply to us? Jonathan Turley, professor of constitutional law at George Washington University stated, What, really, a time of shame this is for the American system. What the Congress did and what he president signed today essentially revokes over 200 years of American principles and values. I agree whole heartedly about this comment. The President’s decision to deny the detainees Prisoner of War (POW) status remains a point of conflict, especially overseas with some arguing that it is based on an inaccurate interpretation of the Geneva Convention for the Treatment of Prisoners of War, which the assert requires that all combatants captured on the battlefield are entitled to be treated as POWs until an independent tribunal has determined otherwise. One notable date in military history is on October 17, 2006, when President Bush igned a law suspending the right of habeas corpus to persons determined by the United States to be an enemy combatant in the Global War on Terror. President Bushs action drew severe criticism, mainly for the laws failure to specifically designate who in the United States will determine who is and who is not an enemy combatant. This however was not the first time in the history of the U. S. Constitution that it’s guaranteed right to Habeas Corpus has been suspended by an action of the President of the United States. In earlier years of the U. S. Civil War, President Abraham Lincoln suspended writs of habeas corpus. Both presidents based their action on the dangers of war, and both presidents faced sharp criticism for carrying out what many believed to be an attack on the Constitution. President Bush suspended writs of habeas corpus through his support and signed into law the Military Commissions Act of 2006. This bill granted the President of the United States almost unlimited authority in establishing and conducting military commissions to try persons held by the U. S. in the Global War on Terrorism. In addition, the Act suspends the right of unlawful enemy combatants to present, or to have presented in heir behalf, writs of habeas corpus. â€Å"Members of volunteer corps, militias, and organized resistance forces that are not part of the Armed Forces are entitled to POW status if they meet the criteria specified in the treaty. Groups that do not meet the standards are not entitled to POW status, and their members who commit aggressive acts may be treated as civilians under the Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War†( Terrorism, the Laws of War, and the Constitution Policy Archive ). These â€Å"unlawful combatants† are not afforded immunity for their ostile acts. [A petitioner must be treated as a prisoner of war until a competent tribunal has decided otherwise, and that a military commission may not proceed with their trial. Although 250 detainees (including three children under the age of 16), 13 have been released from the detention facilities at the U. S. Naval Station in Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, and some detainees are being rewarded for cooperation with better living conditions while the status and treatment of detainees who remain in custody continue to be a source of contention] (â€Å"Enemy Combatants† Journal, Wuerth). Although the President has inherent power under the Commander-in-Chief Clause Article II to take measures he deems appropriate during wartime, he uses The law of war principle. President Bush as well as past presidents having been using this to detain, convict or, â€Å"(We understand Congress grant of authority for the use of necessary and appropriate force to include the authority to detain for the duration of the relevant conflict, and our understanding is based on longstanding law of war principles. ); id. at 548-49 (Souter, J. ) Combat Status Review Tribunals (CSRT), which were established by the Defense Department, were put into place for the sole purpose of hearing the cases of the detainees. However, there are many flaws in having such a system determine the legality of one’s detention. The Supreme Court recognizes that the CSRT process for hearing cases puts many â€Å"constraints upon the detainee’s ability to rebut the factual basis for the Government’s assertion that he is an enemy combatant† (Boumediene v. Bush). Some flaws the court points out is that the CSRT assumes that the detainees are guilty before the trial has even started and it is all up to the detainee to prove that they are in fact, not enemy combatants. This goes against the typical US court proceedings when all suspects are presumed innocent until proven otherwise. The bias shown by the members of the CSRT puts the detainees at a disadvantage. Furthermore, while many of the detainees have a limited knowledge of English, they are not given the specifics as to what crimes they are being charged with because the information may be classified. Additionally, with no textual evidence, the detainees often go into the CSRT board empty handed and without legal representation. Not only do the proceedings of the CSRT seem nfair, it also seems to be designed to intentionally make it difficult for detainees to secure their freedom. In closing, the Founding Fathers placed the Suspension Clause in Article 1, Section 9 in the Constitution. This is important because if the founding fathers specifically intended to apply the Suspension Clause to US citizens only, then they would have placed it in the Bill of Rights which are specifically reserved for the people to protect them against the government. Furthermore, the rest of the clauses in Article 1, Section 9 specifically state what types of activities that the Legislative Branch cannot do. Hence, the Suspension Clause, because of its placement, was intended to be a limitation upon the abuse of power by the Legislative Branch. Lastly, the principle of separation of powers came from the idea that each branch would be able to check one another (Checks and Balances). The Military Commissions Act (MCA) of 2006 was an amendment to the Detainee Treatment Act (DTA) which did not allow the Federal Courts to hear writs of habeas corpus from the detainees at Guantanamo Bay. The US Supreme Court decided that because the DTA was an inadequate substitution for habeas corpus, then the MCA annot strip away Federal courts jurisdiction to hear habeas corpus cases. The Military Commission Act of 2006 effectively stops the Judiciary Branch from doing its job therefore making the act or Bill unconstitutional. . So as I read and watch videos to acquire information I ask myself, Are not constitutionally correct? Detainees, Enemy Combatants, or POW should have the same fair and equal treatment whether it is on our soil or their soil. Presidential power, Congress and the Supreme Court should not rule on emotions, but on the principles that guide us as the â€Å"Greatest and most Powerful Nation in the world.

Homicide Investigation Techniques Essay Example for Free

Homicide Investigation Techniques Essay Abstract Murder investigations are started when there is a suspicious death, there is precise steps that should be followed during a murder investigation. So that the case can be brought to court and prosecuted evidence is collected, suspects and witnesses are interviewed. The law enforcement personnel that participate in a murder investigation are individually trained to handle and process evidence; this includes protection of the crime scene and testifies in court. Definitions of homicides and manslaughter The two offenses that is classified, as homicide is murder and manslaughter; manslaughter is perpetrated in one of three ways; killing another individual with intent, but where compliance such as loss of control, decreased responsibility, or committing suicide by way of a concordat. Committing a crime where an individual is killed by gross negligence, gross given the risk of death and behavior in the form of an illegal act involving a danger that resulted in the death of another human. Murder or homicide is the illegal killing with malice and forethought of another human; this is usually considered a premeditated state of mind and separate murder from manslaughter, because the individual planned the murder with intention, (Osterburg, J. W. Ward, R. H. 2010). Crime Scene Assessment With the arrival of the first law enforcement officer at a crime scene, there are strict procedurals guidelines. The first officer to arrive at a crime scene tries to detain anyone that could be a witness/suspect. It is the responsibility of this officer to secure the crime scene to keep the crime scene from becoming contaminated and the loss of evidence. With the arrival of the investigator that will take charge of the crime scene, the officer will detail all information acquired from possible witness or suspects. The investigator will document the crime scene with pictures, sketches, notes and even video of the evidence and surrounding area. After the walk through, the investigator begins formulating a theory of the crime focusing on the progressions of events to include locations and positions of those present during the crime. All evidence is collected and sect to the lab for analysis, (Osterburg, J. W. Ward, R. H 2010). What is Victimology? Victimology is the study of issues interjecting to the intensification in victim perceptibility, characteristics and elements, persecution and its influences, and victim’s reactions to persecution. Through this scientist studies physical, expressive and monetary harm people suffer because of unlawful activities. Victims are individuals that experience loss, injury or hardship because of a criminal act. Victimology uses subjective approach to identify, define and describe the problems associated with being a victim (Karmen 2012). Conclusion Even with the most publicized crimes in the history of the Unites States Criminal Justice System, police can arrest, but they investigate first. The investigators must find out the cause of and time of death. Investigators define a successful homicide investigation as the one where a perpetrator is pinpointed, indicted and convicted of the crime.

Dynamic Nature Of Tourism And Hospitality Industry

Dynamic Nature Of Tourism And Hospitality Industry Tourism is a combination of services, activities and companies that provides you traveling experience with transportation, accommodation, food, entertainment, activity facilities and other hospitality services (Mathieson and Wall, 1982). Hospitality is how well the community accepts you and their attitude towards you which make you feel safe and welcome. It is the interaction between the host and the guest associated with protection, etiquettes and respect. The extent to which the community shows hospitality varies with the culture and subculture of different societies (Lankford S.V, 1994). Tourism and hospitality is claimed to be the worlds largest industry by World Tourism Organization (WTO) with turnover of $3 trillion dollars. Sri Lanka is famous for its tourism, mainly because of its beautiful islands beaches, old heritage and worlds best resorts in mountains. Tourist comes from all over the world for facilitating themselves and for this purpose the main tourism organization working is Sri Lanka Tourist Development Authority. This Organization is working in developing Sri Lanka to be the Asias most preferable tourist destination. It uses its products creatively while promising effective and efficient use of resources. They are working hard to identify unique services, formulating as well as implementing new strategies for tourism development. Structure This assignment is divided into five different sections from section A to section E. Section A would discuss the brief introduction about tourism/hospitality and the tourism organization selected, section B would define the different services and product offering offered by tourism organizations in order to promote growth, section C would discuss about the global demand issues that drive the constant need for updating tourism services. Whereas section D will focus on innovative strategies and activities followed by tourism organization to satisfy these changes in demand. Section E would discuss the services provided by SLTDA. B) Different Product/Services by Tourism Organizations: The basic services that the every tourist expects to receive are: Accommodation: Varies according to your packages from motels, private small hotels, 5 stars hotels and resorts. Food Facilities: Tourist experience depends a lot on the food quality he is available to as most often people travel for exploring the beautiful locations and for enjoying the different kind of food of that country. Time and Money: Tourism Development depends a lot on the access and ease the tourist gets after enjoying his vacations and for that it is important that he does not faces such issues relating to time and money specially. Accommodation, Tours, Sight-seeing, Cruises, Car rentals, Best Air fare rates, Transportation, Tour Guides, Entertainment are some of the basic facilities provided to you by tourism organizations depending about your package. Whether you want to have a luxurious vacation with all the facilities at its best or a simple economical holiday, this tourism organization has packages according to your budgets and demands (David Weaver, 2005). Tourism organization has to work on constant basis for developing there product portfolio in order to maintain their demand and to stimulate growth because once you have plan to go on a vacation, at first you select the best possible place depending on your affordability and after you have shortlisted two to three places you start listing them according to their product/services offering. The best tourism package offered with all the preferable facilities and the one which is within your range as well (David Weaver, 2005) B.1) Different Value Added Facilities Provided By Tourism Organization: Bucket shop: Bucket shops are retail outlets which offer discount rates in airfares in commission with tourism organizations. Charter airlines: These airlines facilitate the movement of tourists on packages tours or seat-only package. They offer low cost transportation services to holiday destinations, for this the customer however has to make compromises by traveling at inconvenient hours or by providing just elementary services. Computerized Reservation System (CRS): Access to airfares, schedules, packages, availability of seats and reservation beforehand become possible by this system. C) Global Demand Issues in Tourism C.1) Background Diversification is important in tourism. It refers the addition of new product to the already developed products portfolio; it is a process by which new products are added to the product portfolio of a tourism business or destination in order to avoid over-dependence on a few, often highly competitive, products. Tourism has changed in the last 30 years with the rise of the jet aircraft; it has now emerged as a global phenomenon. It is today one of the most important global industry. 593 million tourist travelled abroad in the year 1996 while in 2003, 694 million tourists travelled worldwide (Long, P. T, 2000) Before it was difficult to analyze the accurate data but after the development of Tourism Satellite Account(TSAs) it became easier as TSAs informs you about the accurate, reliable and comparable data which is collected by individual nation. However it was also came in notice that economic crisis like Gulf War, effect of 9/11, oil crisis in 1970s effect tourism and tourism organization economically as it is a global risk for tourists to travel in such conditions (Stephen J Page, 2005). C.2) Consumer and the changing world The economical as well as geo-political situation demands for new strategies day by day. Variation in technology, demographics, political and world scenario changes the outlook of world as well as of customer. There are two perspectives in this new demand factor. Demand is influenced by factors such as traveling motivation and the ability to travel and on the other hand we have behavioral changes like destination preferences, ease at traveling, quality of experience but all these demands vary upon the intention of traveling. The person who has been traveling a lot and is experienced will adjust to the surrounding even if it is not according to his demands (Martin Lohman, 2004) The other influencing factors in the tourism demand are divided into different categories for better understanding that is economy, politics, crisis and threats, demographic change and technology and all these factors are inter linked with each other. These factors have impact as holiday demand is driven by the need, motivation and realization depending on the economical situation of the individual and freedom to travel. External factor has an impact by effecting the ability to travel that is freedom, money, time, physical ability) while consumer behavior does not depend on any single factor but is actually the reaction caused by the external factors and is also backed by the internal factors such as motivation, strong desire (Martin Lohman, 2004). Moreover there are several emerging factors having its impact on the demand and creating this dynamic nature of tourism which is known to all however bringing an overnight change is not possible, similarly these trends will also not change the world tourism. C.3) Demographic Changes: Although it was a constant process but in recent years it is showing changes more often now and is considered to be the most important in the European countries. These demographic trends have an impact on tourism plan of countries. Previous researches has shown that people in European countries doesnt change their traveling pattern due to their increasing age or retirement but it is now observed that the generation when will reach the age of 60s would not follow the same pattern. The senior citizen today are more active and enjoy all these tourism activities but the senior lot in next 15 years will be dull and less active comparatively. Similarly the declining rate in number of children is also showing some changes but this rate is really slow to bring in notice therefore one does not expect tourism organizations to change or re-orient their strategies (Lohmann and Denielsson, 2001). C.4) Standardization vs. Unique Offering: Technology is changing, with this new era of changing trend it is expected that the customers will demand for high quality product offering and will thrive for change but it is also stated that a little bit of standardization is a must for tourism product portfolio. But too much standardization will be a bigger risk for organizations because there will be no variety offering matching to the rapid demand of exclusivity. The customer today wants both quality and uniqueness. This means that the industry has a new challenge because it has to maintain a balance between standardization and exclusivity (Lohman, 2004) Moreover considering the ongoing demand it is not necessary that the tourism product offered is good or not similarly whether the product is considered good by the consumer is also not important, the important thing is that it should be considerably in the list of priority high lightened by the tourist and should be considered the best in the specific list. Same goes for the tourism organization which include travel agencies, operators, hotel management and transportation in-charge by offering convinces and guidelines to help the consumers (Lohman, 2004). Currently there is no major changes to be predicted but that doesnt mean that we take it as a smooth path because one cannot predict future and it is always expected to show unexpected event for example any political change, any natural disaster, epidemic disease, war) therefore it is necessary and also possible that the tourism organizations prepare for the changing trend which can be identified by keeping a close eye on current situation. Demand is high but that will not make you able to sell anything to experienced tourists (Taylor, 2001). All these above global issues make it necessary for the tourism and hospitality organization to constantly develop their products to meet the constant demand. D) Strategies and Different Activities Employed By Tourism Organizations: Strategic planning consists of several steps. The first step is to formalize a proper organization which controls all the necessary details. Then a vision must be developed about how you actually want to shape out everything followed by other details including infrastructure and investment issues. D.1) Competition: As time is changing the world is also in constant demand of change which is resulting in competition among different countries thriving for economic growth, development better than the other country. Similarly the world tourism is also emerging day by day and countries are trying to benefit themselves by developing their country into a proper tourist spot in return generating huge revenue (Fainstein Gladstone, 1999). This will also benefit the country in prospering as developing the country will make the government work on infrastructure and surrounding quality along with that it will help making the relation stronger of the host country with the other countries whose tourists are welcomed with immense hospitality. Moreover for handling tourism more employment is needed which is good for the localities and it is also noticed that those countries which are not developing themselves for betterment and tourism may left behind in such a competitive environment where every other nation i s fighting for a standalone position in the planet (Fainstein Gladstone, 1999). Not just internationally it is expected among the cities as well within the same countries to work for their own betterment competing with the other city of the same nation. Every city mayor should work for the development of its own city which may eventually result making the city a place for tourism destination (Holcomb, 1999) D.2) Strategies Development: Countries that strive to be competitive must develop a long term strategy and start working on it because without a plan you cannot achieve your goal. Its a long term process because developing a country in a preferable tourism destination and above all developing the sense of hospitality among the local community is not an easy job. Therefore for achieving this difficult task you need to first develop a strategy which is a set of policies intended to achieve your goal and mission (Getz, 1997). D.3) Innovation: Further more once the mission is achieved one must not take it for granted and should work to improve it day by day as tourism industry can never settle on one standardize procedure, it must keep brining innovation depending on the current trend and demands on its consumer (Van den Berg et al, 1995). D.4) 3 As of Tourism: There are 3 As of tourism which must be kept in mind all the time because it has the core importance Access: Transportation must be provided to the tourist easily so that they can easily access their desirable tourist spots. Attraction: Tourists must find variety of attractive places to visit and explore. They must have different choices to make so that they can enjoy their trip completely instead of sitting at home even on vacations. Amenities: The facilities available to the tourist on the particular location or destination they plan to visit. However the most important A in this category is the second one Attraction as tourism is all about exploring and visiting different locations (Dieke and Karamustafa, 2000). D.5) Events: People are getting involved into different kinds of events and therefore chose holiday destination considering the upcoming possible event, so that they can enjoy their holiday break completely. Therefore the event business is also a profitable business these days. It is also noticed that sometime events make the tourist visit a specific location for example Dubai festivals or fashion shows make people visit Dubai, which often doesnt hold a desire for exploring Dubai but those events (Getz, 2004). This helps a lot in off seasons when tourism is at a low level encouraging the tourists to visit helping the tourism organization in maintain their profits. Besides that it also help in developing an image of the host country in a favorable position making the country as a favorite holiday destination for people from all over the world. (Mossberg, 2000) As events are important part of tourism, one should work for its marketing in a proper way. Promotions through blogs, brochures, press release are some common way for marketing the events. Different marketing channels should be adopted for promoting the events so that everyone comes to know about it and it should be done giving enough time to the travelers so that they can plan a trip conveniently. D.6) Culture and Roots: The host country should emphasize on its culture greatly because the tourist find it attractive as it gives them something different to explore. Ancient heritage, monuments is of keen interest for the tourists and in this way one can make its own culture known to the people worldwide as well (Mossberg, 2000). E) Sri Lankan Tourist Development Authority: E.1) Tourism In Sri Lanka: Sri Lankas main business comes from its tourism. It has ancient heritage, beaches, beautiful mountains, lush green resorts making it a perfect spot for holidays. Tourists comes from every part of the world to visit Sri Lanka as it has a really good tourism development organizations working for the betterment of industry and bringing diversification in there product offering. Visa policy for Sri Lanka is comparatively easy to get. Usually they give a tourist visa for 30 days but it can also get extended. Your visa can extend up to three months by paying some amount and it can further increase for three months giving extension fees along with additional Rs.10,000 however extension more than this depends upon the concerned authority ((Sri Lanka Development Tourist Authority Online) E.2) Different Exclusive Offering By SLTDA: Sri Lankan Tourist Development Authority offers different exclusive services in order to satisfy their customers and confirming a great experience depending on their affordability Heritage: Sri Lanka is rich in ancient heritage. It has preserved Asian monuments which are an attraction for people all around from the world especially for tourists who are fond of ancient culture and tradition specially visits Sri Lanka for enjoying these cultural, belief and traditional way of living that is held in reserve in the roots of Sri Lanka. UNESCO world heritage, Adams Peak are some of the must visit in Sri Lanka.(Sri Lanka Tourism Guide) SPA and Ayuerveda Treatment: They just not revive your mind and body but also try to sooth your soul by providing you with the most popular method AYUERVEDA for relaxing your body and mind and healing spiritual and physical problems by herbal treatments, various relaxing bath and body massages along with physical exercises such as yoga, aerobics and particular diets which help one feel relaxing and completely enjoying this lavishness of life which you usually do not cherish in your daily routine (Sri Lanka Tourism Guide). Shopping Destinations: Apart from beautiful and lavish shopping malls in Colombo and other larger cities, one can also enjoy traditional villager shopping in small villages and handcraft material from local vendor on a very cheap price, while brass work of Sri Lanka is also very famous due to its finesse. Another purchase f Sri Lanka are its silverware that is also given as a souvenir at times but the most famous of all are the widest variety of stone found in Sri Lanka because of which Sri Lanka is considered among the largest gem producer country therefore you can also facilitate yourself by getting yourself these stones on your visit (Sri Lanka Tourism Guide). Adventures Sports: Sri Lanka offers the chances of indulging in all kinds of sports specially adventures involving waters as it has more than 100 beaches which facilitate you to go for water skiing, water surfing, scuba diving, boating, Speed boating. Moreover these sports are run under the supervision of professionals and when you are thorough professionals you can also try killer fall, head chopper and drop. Apart from water adventure one can also enjoy wildlife, forest exploration, mountain climbing for being able to witness the worlds most beautiful scenery ahead. Beautiful waterfalls are also one of the desirable scenes to watch in Sri Lanka. Safari which happens to be the national park of Sri Lanka has variety of animals including different kinds of mammals, elephant, hog, porcupine, ant eater and variety of monkeys as well. Islands have different kinds of reptile (snakes, crocodiles as well) making it dangerous to wander carelessly as it is said that out of all these hundreds of reptile kinds 5 of snake found are deadly.(Sri Lanka Tourism Guide) Festivals: Sri Lanka is a city of on going entertainment and therefore every season you will witness some kind of celebration going on. Cultural festivals, Harvest festivals or some regional ceremonies are always taking place. All these are the exclusive offering which is given by the Sri Lankan tourism organization to its tourists depending on their affordability level. Apart from those basic facilities like accommodation, transport, breakfast benefits are usually included in the tourism package. CONCLUSION: In the end it is concluded that tourism organization faces extreme global issues and if they want to be ahead of others they must constantly bring innovation intro their product portfolio. Strategies should be made and tourism organizations must follow them step by step. REFRENCES: David Weaver. 2005. The Ecotourism concept and tourism conservation symbiosis. Journal of sustainable tourism 13 (4): 376-389. Fainstein, S.S. and Gladstone, D. (1999) Evaluating urban tourism, in D.R. Judd and S.S. Fainstein (eds) The Tourist City, New Haven: Yale University Press. Getz, D. (1997). Event Management Event Tourism. Cognizant Communication Corporation Lankford, S. V. (1994). Attitudes and perceptions toward tourism andrural regional development. Journal of Travel Research, 31(3), 35-43. Lohmann, Martin (2004): The 31st Reiseanalyse RA 2001. Tourism; Vol. 49, NÂ ° 1 / 2001; pp 65 67, Zagreb. Lohmann, M. Danielsson, J. (2001): Predicting Travel Patterns of Senior Citizens: How the Past May Provide a Key to the Future. Journ.of vacation marketing, Vol. 7, NÂ ° 4, pp. 357 366 Long, P. T (1990). Rural resident tourismperceptions and attitudes by community level of tourism. Journal of TravelResearch, 28(3), 3-9. Mathieson and Wall, 1982, Tourism; economic, physical and social impacts, Longman House groups in tourism centers. Journal of Travel Research, 21 (3), 8-12. Morrison(1998). Convention and visitor bureaus in the USA: a profile of bureaus: bureau executives and budgets. Journal of Travel and Tourism marketing, 7, 1-19. Mossberg, L. (Ed) (2000). Evaluation of Events: Scandinavian Experiences. The United States of America: Cognizant Communication Corporation.

Children Need to be Encouraged :: Teaching Education Essays

Children Need to be Encouraged As we know, children spend about thirteen years of their childhood (if they graduate) in school around their peers and teachers. Most children go home to busy households where parents do not spend quality time, such as; listening, and disciplining them like they need to. So when these children go into the school the next day, they need and adult to pat them on the back, listen to them, discipline them, and encourage them to keep on trying. Children need to be encouraged so they will try harder. I want to there to give them that extra push that they deserve because many teachers gave me that encouragement to me. These days encourageable, energetic, and determined teachers become evermore important in today’s busy society. Teaching children I would incorporate all of these philosophies such as; perennialism, progressivism, behaviorism, essentialism, existentialism, and social reconstructionism in my instructional curriculum. For example, including perennialism in which, it is necessary to teach elementary students morals, such as; sharing, not cheating, and even playing fair (like in sports). Progressivism will be used in my instruction because cooperative learning activities will take place. I will use reinforcement rewards with computers, stickers, and candy; which will display the philosophy of behaviorism reflected in my classroom. I will encourage free-will in my students by letting them make choices such as; the book they want to read or letting them decide whether or not they want to do extra credit; which would demonstrate a small part of the existentialism philosophy I support. I believe it is also necessary to educate elementary students on other cultures so they will be aware of the similarities and differences compared to their own culture; which is how I will incorporate social reconstructionism into my classroom. However, the basis to hold everything into a functional curriculum I would use the essentialist philosophy; in which I would include all of the basic subjects in every week’s lesson plan to create a structural predictive atmosphere so the students know what is happening next. Students need repetition.